Leaderology, the science of leadership, may seem like a modern discipline at first glance. However, its roots extend far back into antiquity. While some scholars point to Aristotle as an early figure in the development of leadership theory, the origins of leadership can be traced even further into the annals of history. A renowned philosopher, Aristotle was a pupil of Plato, the author of "The Republic," a seminal work that delineated three distinct leadership archetypes. Yet, exploring leadership in literature predates even these ancient thinkers, finding its place as a central theme in Homer's epic poem, The Iliad.

The point is that the study of leadership has deep historical roots, with ancient scholars and writers offering profound insights into the very essence of leadership. In this article, I would like to present the argument to the leadership community that Publius Cornelius Tacitus, an eminent Roman historian and politician from approximately AD 56 to AD 120, can be considered one of the earliest "leaderologists." While Tacitus is most celebrated for his historical contributions, the truth is that he had a profound impact on both our understanding of leadership and how we might examine it.

I. Tacitus and the Context of his Works:

To establish Tacitus as one of the first leaderologists, it is crucial to understand the historical and literary context in which he operated. Tacitus's surviving works, primarily the "Annals" and the "Histories," meticulously document the reigns of Roman emperors such as Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors in AD 69. These historical accounts serve as a rich source of information for understanding the leadership styles, decisions, and consequences of these emperors during a pivotal period in Roman history.

II. Tacitus's Focus on Leadership:

Examination of Leaders' Actions:

Tacitus did more than just document the actions of leaders; he examined them. Tacitus's role as a leaderologist is underscored by his profound emphasis on the actions of leaders and their far-reaching effects. In his works, Tacitus meticulously scrutinizes the decisions and policies of Roman emperors, shedding light on their leadership qualities or the lack thereof. His attention to detail provides valuable insights into how leadership influenced the course of history during his time.

Assessment of Leadership Consequences:

As stated, Tacitus's writings go beyond mere narration; they critically evaluate leadership outcomes. He does not shy away from analyzing the consequences of leadership decisions on the Roman Empire, whether political intrigues, military campaigns, or the impact on society. Tacitus's keen observations allow readers to discern the cause-and-effect relationships between leadership choices and historical developments. Moreover, he was objectively critical during a time when doing so was less than popular or even dangerous.

The Importance and Recognition of Contrast:

An indispensable component of leaderology is the nuanced examination of contrast and the acknowledgment of various leadership paradoxes. In his extensive body of work, Tacitus consistently demonstrated the ability and the deep desire to explore the full spectrum of situations he encountered. His commitment to revealing the complexities of leadership and the multifaceted nature of the world around him set him apart as a profound leaderologist.

One striking example of Tacitus's mastery of portraying contrast is his renowned work "Germania," composed in 98 AD. This work stems from his depiction of the Roman Empire in "Agricola," written during the controversial reign of Emperor Domitian (81 AD — 96 AD). In "Germania," Tacitus presents a captivating and, at times, contradictory view of the world. He skillfully contrasts the Germanic society with the Roman society of his era.

Within this narrative, Tacitus paints a vivid picture of Germania, highlighting its unique customs, governance structures, and way of life. Simultaneously, he critiques the policies and actions of Emperor Domitian and, by extension, the broader Roman Empire. This juxtaposition serves as a powerful testament to Tacitus's ability to discern and convey the inherent contrasts within the leadership and social dynamics of his time. Moreover, it shows a strong attempt to understand the cause-and-effect nature of leadership decisions.

For example, in "Germania," the reader is confronted with a stark contrast between the rugged simplicity of Germanic life and the opulence of Rome. Tacitus meticulously examines the values, traditions, and leadership structures of the Germanic tribes, which starkly contradict the complex bureaucracy and authoritarian rule of Rome. This stark dichotomy not only showcases Tacitus's keen observational skills but also underscores his commitment to revealing the intricate interplay of leadership, culture, and society, which are hallmarks of the social science of leadership.

Tacitus's portrayal of contrast extends beyond mere description; it serves as a critical lens through which to analyze leadership dynamics. By contrasting Germanic society with Roman society, he invites readers to contemplate the implications of different leadership styles and societal values and explore the pros and cons of various elements within both. This approach challenges us to question our assumptions and preconceptions about leadership and encourages us to recognize the diversity of existing leadership paradigms.

III. Exploration of Leadership Beyond Politics:

While Tacitus is best known for his historical narratives, his engagement with leadership extends beyond the realm of politics. In his "Dialogus de Oratoribus," he delves into the art of oratory, a skill essential for leaders of his time or even modern day. This exploration reveals Tacitus's interest in leadership skills and influence that extended beyond the political arena, highlighting his comprehensive approach to leaderology. Indeed, any skilled leaderologist will recognize the complexities of leadership and will seek to explore and understand its various nuances.

IV. Tacitus's Ethical Considerations:

Tacitus often delves into the ethical dimensions of leadership, providing valuable insights into the moral character of leaders. This is to say that his writing was much more than mere documentation or critique. His writings often question the ethics of leadership decisions, shedding light on the moral dilemmas faced by leaders of his time. By addressing the ethical aspect of leadership, Tacitus's works contribute to a more holistic understanding of leadership that transcends mere political analysis or documentation.

V. Tacitus's Relevance in Contemporary Leaderology:

In many ways, Tacitus's insights remain remarkably relevant in contemporary leadership studies. When drawing parallels between the leadership challenges faced by Roman emperors and those encountered by modern leaders, we can see how his observations continue to offer valuable lessons for leadership in the present day. For instance, the political intrigues and ethical dilemmas faced by Roman emperors find echoes in the complex ethical and political decisions made by leaders in the 21st century. Tacitus's emphasis on leadership consequences also aligns with the contemporary focus on accountability and the long-term effects of leadership decisions. In this way, Tacitus's work bridges ancient and modern leadership studies, emphasizing the enduring relevance of his insights.

VI. Comparison with Modern Leaderology:

When contrasting Tacitus's approach to leaderology with modern leadership theories and frameworks, it can be argued that he laid the foundation for subsequent scholars to develop more structured leadership theories. While Tacitus's insights are rich in narrative and historical context, modern leaderology often incorporates systematic models and methodologies for studying leadership. For example, modern leadership theories like transformational and situational leadership build upon Tacitus's emphasis on leadership qualities and adaptability to different situations. By comparing Tacitus's narrative approach with contemporary ideas, we can appreciate how his work served as a precursor to more structured and analytical approaches to leadership studies.

VII. Influence on Later Leaders and Leaderologists:

Tacitus's enduring impact on the field of leadership studies is unquestionable. It can be argued that his insights help to change the modern world. In fact, his exploration of leadership qualities, actions, and their historical repercussions garnered the attention and favor of some of our most notable American Founders and was even cited in constitutional debates. Tacitus's examination of the ethical aspects of leadership remains historically significant, serving as a timeless reference point. His legacy continues to thrive in the realm of leadership studies today, where scholars diligently analyze his profound insights while further developing the foundational principles of leadership. In fact, his insights into “safety” profoundly impacted the completion of the Adversity Nexus Theory.

Indeed, Publius Cornelius Tacitus emerges as a pioneering figure in the field of leaderology. His meticulous examination of leadership actions, critical evaluation of their consequences, comprehensive exploration of leadership qualities, and ethical considerations establish him as one of the earliest scholars to engage in the systematic study of leadership. While Tacitus is often celebrated for his historical contributions, it is essential to recognize his profound influence on the understanding of leadership in the ancient world and the enduring relevance of his insights in contemporary leadership studies. His work is a testament to leadership's enduring significance in shaping societies and the importance of studying leadership as a critical discipline in the social sciences.

VIII. Evidence via Quote:

“Great empires are not maintained by timidity.”

“The more numerous the laws, the more corrupt the state.”

“The desire for safety stands against every great and noble enterprise.”

“This is an unfair thing about war: victory is claimed by all, failure to one alone.”

“When [Servius Galba] was a commoner he seemed too big for his station, and had he never been emperor, no one would have doubted his ability to reign.”

“Of all things human the most precarious and transitory is a reputation for power which has no strong support of its own.”

“… in disturbed times uncivilized communities trust and prefer leaders who take risks.”

“Rarely will two or three tribes confer to repulse a common danger. Accordingly they fight individually and are collectively conquered.”

“Vitellius gave orders for depleting the strength of the legions and auxiliaries. Recruiting was forbidden, and discharges offered without restriction. This policy was disastrous for the country and unpopular among the soldiers, who found that their turn for work and danger came round all the more frequently, now that there were so few to share the duties. Besides, their efficiency was demoralized by luxury. Nothing was left of the old-fashioned discipline and the good rules of our ancestors, who preferred to base the security of Rome on character and not on money.”

Further Reading:

USEFUL VICES: by Shreyaa Bhatt

Tacitus' Attitude to War and the Soldier: by Iiro Kajanto

Tacitus Biography: by Britannica.com