I was recently involved in a group conversation about bias and it’s connectedness to belonging.   This conversation was in a specific context, and we never did come to any clear conclusions based on the facilitation of the group by the moderator and the general discussion that ensued and was primarily considered on an emotional level.  But during the hour-long car ride home I started thinking about bias in a much more scientific and overarching context.  I started to apply the concept of bias to other leadership concepts like socialization, cohesion, team development, motivation, among other leadership theories.  Bias, like many other leadership theories can be both functional and dysfunctional depending on how it is used.  Like many “hot button” issues in leadership today, if you say someone is biased, it is automatically seen negatively and as a threat to their own survival.  But if you look at bias through the lens of scientific leadership theories, you’ll see that bias, when connected with the theories can be both functional and dysfunctional. 

Like many other leadership theories, bias by itself is neither good, nor bad, functional or dysfunctional.  But when combined with other behavior-based leadership concepts, bias can become both functional and dysfunctional.  The key for the leader is to not only recognize the bias, but to determine how it is connected to other leadership theories within the situational environment.

First let’s be clear that a bias is nothing more than a preference.   Bias is an inclination, preference, or tendency towards certain ideas, beliefs, opinions, or behaviors, often without conscious awareness. Bias can be explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious) and may arise from individual experiences, cultural upbringing, societal norms, or other factors.

Let’s do a little test: 

You MUST select one from the following choices and you MUST select the correct option for each group:

• 1)      Would you prefer to eat:
• • a)       Pepperoni Pizza
  • b)      Chicken Chow Mein
  • c)       Roasted Salmon
• 2)      Would you prefer to listen to:
• • a)       Country music
  • b)      Rock-n-roll music
  • c)       Classical music
• 3)      Would you prefer to communicate in:
• • a)       English language
  • b)      Spanish language
  • c)       French language
• 4)      Would you prefer to play:
• • a)       Soccer (Football)
  • b)      Baseball
  • c)       Checkers
• 5)      Would you prefer to believe/practice:
• • a)       Hinduism
  • b)      Islam
  • c)       Christianity

How did you do?  Did you select the correct one for each?  How do you know if the one you selected was the correct one?  If you are wondering if you got them correct, the answer is, “Yes” they are all correct and appropriate choices.  Did you select the one you preferred, based on your familiarity or experience with it, or because you knew the most about it?  Well, you just experienced your bias (preference).  We all have bias, and it is a basic concept to how humans developed and behave as a species.

To understand this, we must consider the concept of Homophily.  Homophily is a social phenomenon that refers to the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with others who are like themselves in certain characteristics or attributes. The term "homophily" comes from the Greek words "homos" (meaning "the same") and "philia" (meaning "love" or "friendship"). It is essentially the "love of the same" and is commonly observed in various social contexts.  Homophily can be observed in different dimensions, such as:

Demographic homophily is observed where people tend to associate with others who share similar demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, education level, and socio-economic status.   Some examples of demographic homophily include, but are not limited to:

Gender homophily: People often form connections and relationships with others of the same gender. This can be seen in friendships, social circles, and professional networks where individuals tend to interact more with those of the same gender.

Ethnic and racial homophily: People tend to associate with others who share the same ethnic or racial background. This is evident in communities, neighborhoods, and social gatherings where individuals from similar racial or ethnic groups tend to cluster together.

Age homophily: Age plays a significant role in social connections. People often form friendships and relationships with others in the same age group, leading to age-based social networks and interactions.

Socio-economic homophily: Individuals with similar socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to associate with each other.  This can be observed in educational settings, workplaces, and residential areas, where people of similar socio-economic status tend to cluster.  Partly because of the status, but also partly because they share similar experiences.

Educational homophily: People with similar levels of education often form social bonds. This can be seen in college or university settings, where students tend to socialize with others pursuing similar academic degrees.

Nationality homophily: Individuals from the same country or nationality may be more inclined to associate with each other, particularly when living abroad.

Attitudinal homophily is observed when individuals are drawn to those who have similar attitudes, beliefs, values, and opinions on assorted topics, including politics, religion, and social issues.  Some of the attitudinal homophily can include:

Political homophily: Individuals with similar political beliefs and affiliations tend to associate and form social connections. This can be observed in political parties, online forums, and social media groups where like-minded individuals discuss and support their shared political views.

Religious homophily: People who share similar religious beliefs and values often gravitate towards one another. They may participate in religious gatherings, events, and communities where they can bond over their shared faith.

Environmental attitudes: Individuals with similar attitudes towards environmental issues may form connections through environmental organizations, conservation efforts, or community initiatives.

 Social justice and activism: Those who have a strong interest in social justice and activism are more likely to associate with others who share their passion for promoting equality, fairness, and human rights.

Lifestyle and health choices: People who share similar lifestyle choices, such as being health-conscious, vegetarians, or fitness enthusiasts, may form social connections based on their common interests and beliefs.

Cultural preferences: Individuals who have similar cultural preferences, such as music, art, literature, or movies, may bond over shared interests and attend cultural events or gatherings together.

Attitudes towards education: People with similar attitudes towards education, such as valuing lifelong learning or supporting particular educational approaches, may form connections through educational institutions or related groups.

Technology and innovation: Those interested in technology and innovation may come together to discuss and collaborate on tech-related projects, startups, or innovation-focused events.

Occupational homophily: Individuals may prefer to socialize and form relationships with others who work in similar professions or industries.  Some examples of occupational homophily include:

Professional associations: People working in the same profession often join professional associations or organizations specific to their field, where they can network, share knowledge, and collaborate with others in similar occupations.

Industry events and conferences: Individuals in the same industry often attend conferences, workshops, and seminars related to their field. These events provide opportunities for networking and knowledge-sharing among professionals with similar occupational backgrounds.

Workplace social circles: Within a workplace, employees with similar job roles or departments may naturally form social circles and friendships based on their shared work experiences and challenges.

Alumni networks: Graduates from the same educational institution often connect with one another through alumni networks. These networks provide a sense of camaraderie and mutual support, especially for those who pursued similar career paths.

Online forums and communities: Many online platforms cater to professionals in specific occupations or industries. People working in these fields can join such forums to discuss industry trends, seek career advice, and engage with peers in their occupation.

Trade unions and labor organizations: Workers from the same industry may join trade unions or labor organizations to advocate for their rights and interests, collectively addressing workplace issues.

Job-specific events and meetups: Some occupations have job-specific events and meetups where individuals in the same field can connect, learn from each other, and explore career opportunities.

Co-working spaces and business incubators: Professionals in various fields may share co- working spaces or participate in business incubator programs, leading to interactions and collaboration among individuals with different but complementary skills.

Interests and hobbies: Homophily is often seen in people forming connections with others who have similar interests, hobbies, or activities, such as sports, music, books, or recreational pursuits.  Some examples of these include:

Sports enthusiasts: People who share a passion for a specific sport, such as soccer, basketball, or tennis, often form social connections through sports clubs, recreational leagues, or online forums.

Gaming communities: Gamers with similar gaming interests may come together in online gaming communities, gaming conventions, or local gaming clubs.

Book clubs: Individuals who enjoy reading and discussing books often join book clubs, where they can connect with others who share their literary interests.

Music fandom: Fans of a particular music genre or band may form social bonds through concerts, music festivals, or fan clubs.

Art and craft groups: Those interested in arts and crafts, such as painting, pottery, or knitting, may join art classes or craft workshops to meet others who share their creative hobbies.

Outdoor activities: People who enjoy outdoor activities like hiking, camping, or birdwatching    often connect with others who have similar interests through outdoor clubs or nature-oriented events.

Food and culinary interests: Food enthusiasts may form connections through cooking classes, food festivals, or foodie meetups to explore and share their culinary interests.

Travel communities: Travelers with a passion for exploring new destinations and cultures may connect through travel groups, forums, or travel-based events.

Photography clubs: Photography enthusiasts may join photography clubs or workshops to share their love for capturing images and exchange photography tips.

Each of these, by themselves are neither good nor bad, functional, or dysfunctional.  But when applied to other leadership theories, such as Cohesion, Socialization Theory, Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory, and Motivation, just to name a few, each has the propensity to take on a functional or dysfunctional aspect in application.  Let’s first consider what happens when bias and cohesion are put together.

Bias and Cohesion:

Bias can play a role in developing cohesion, but the extent and nature of its impact can vary depending on the context and the type of bias involved. Cohesion refers to the degree of unity, togetherness, and cooperation within a group or community. While bias can sometimes be a negative factor that hinders cohesion, there are instances where certain forms of bias may contribute positively to group dynamics.

The positive (functional) aspects of bias in developing cohesion can include In-group bias. In-group bias is the tendency for individuals to favor members of their own group over those outside the group. While this bias can lead to divisions between distinct groups, it can also foster a sense of belonging, identity, and loyalty among members of the same group. This sense of solidarity can contribute to the cohesion of the group.  This sense of solidarity can be in the form of shared values and beliefs. People with similar beliefs and values may naturally form cohesive groups as they have common ground and can relate to one another more easily. While this similarity might stem from a bias (preference), it can lead to increased trust and cooperation within the group.  This is also seen in Socialization Theory in that social identity theory suggests that individuals derive part of their self-concept from their group memberships. Bias that reinforces positive perceptions of one's own group can strengthen social identity, fostering a stronger sense of cohesion among group members.

Now, let’s consider some of the negative (dysfunctional) aspects of bias in developing cohesion.  Just the opposite of ingroup bias is out-group bias.  Out-group bias is the tendency to view members of other groups negatively and can lead to intergroup conflicts and divisions. This form of bias can create hostility and reduce cohesion between diverse groups.  Because the groups may be distinctly different in some aspect or another, stereotypes and prejudice may develop. Stereotypes and prejudice can lead to discriminatory behaviors, exclusion, and distrust among groups. These negative consequences can hinder the development of cohesion and cooperation and tend to create division.

While some forms of bias can contribute to the development of cohesion within certain groups, they often do so at the expense of intergroup relations. It is essential to strike a balance between fostering positive group cohesion and promoting an understanding between distinct groups.  Emphasizing shared values, promoting empathy, and encouraging intergroup interactions can help mitigate the negative impacts of bias while still fostering a cohesive and inclusive environment.

Bias and Socialization:

In socialization theory, bias can have both positive (functional) and negative (dysfunctional) characteristics, which can impact how individuals develop their identities, values, and behaviors within society.  Socialization theory focuses on how individuals learn and internalize social norms, roles, and beliefs through interactions with others and their surrounding environment.

Some positive (functional) and negative (dysfunctional) aspects of bias in the context of socialization theory include cultural transmission. Bias can play a positive role in cultural transmission by passing down valuable knowledge, traditions, and customs from one generation to another.  It helps preserve cultural heritage and fosters a sense of belonging and identity within a specific community.  Another functional aspect is in the formation of group cohesion.  As mentioned previously, bias that leads to the formation of in-groups and out-groups can promote group cohesion and social bonding among individuals with shared identities and values. This sense of belonging can provide emotional support and a feeling of security within the group.  This emotional support and feelings of security within the group can help develop social learning.  Bias can act as a mechanism for social learning, allowing individuals to adopt behavioral patterns, attitudes, and beliefs prevalent in their cultural or social environment. This learning helps individuals adapt and function effectively within their society which also creates identity formation.  Bias can contribute to identity formation by providing individuals with a sense of self in relation to others. It helps individuals understand their place in society, their roles, and how they fit into their cultural and social context.

Now let’s consider some of the negative (dysfunctional) qualities of socialization and bias.  When we consider negative aspects of bias, we will no doubt observe reinforcement of stereotypes. Bias can reinforce stereotypes and perpetuate discriminatory attitudes and beliefs about certain groups. This can lead to social divisions and prejudice, hindering cooperation and understanding among diverse communities.  Because of the reinforcement of stereotypes, we’ll also observe a limitation of perspectives.  Bias can narrow individuals' perspectives and limit their understanding of unfamiliar or distinct cultures, beliefs, and viewpoints. This can result in a lack of empathy towards others and hinder the development of open-mindedness.  Without open-mindedness social inequalities may emerge. Bias can lead to the perpetuation of social inequalities, as individuals may face disadvantages and discrimination due to biased attitudes and societal norms about them.  This perpetuation of stereotypes may also create a resistance to change.  In the socialization context bias can create resistance to change and acceptance of innovative ideas or alternative ways of living.  It may hinder novelty and societal progress if individuals are unwilling to examine their biases and be open to different perspectives.

While bias in the context of socialization theory can have positive aspects such as cultural transmission and group cohesion, it also has negative consequences like reinforcing stereotypes and perpetuating social inequalities.  Addressing bias through education, exposure to diverse experiences, beliefs, and values, etc., and promoting empathy can help mitigate its negative and dysfunctional impact on society.

Bias and Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory

In the context of Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL – also known as In-Group/Out-Group) theory, bias can have both positive (functional) and negative (dysfunctional) aspects that influence the leader-follower relationship within organizations. VDL theory focuses on the relationship between a leader and each of their individual followers, emphasizing the dyadic nature of the leadership process. First let’s look at some positive (functional) aspects of bias in the context of VDL theory.  The first thing to consider is the  Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) quality can be increased.  Bias can lead to the formation of high-quality leader-member exchanges, where leaders develop strong, supportive relationships with certain followers. These high-quality exchanges can foster trust, mutual understanding, and open communication, leading to enhanced job satisfaction and organizational commitment. 

This personalized attention and support of followers may help if the bias in favor of certain followers results in leaders providing personalized attention and support to those individuals. This can lead to individualized mentoring and coaching, helping followers develop their skills and reach their potential within the organization.  With this support often there is increased in-group bonding. Bias can create in-group bonding between the leader and certain followers, leading to a very cohesive and close-knit team. This cohesion can enhance collaboration, coordination, and teamwork among the in-group members.  Think of these functional groups such as Navy Seal Teams as one example.  This provides for flexibility in leadership approaches. Bias may cause leaders to adapt their leadership styles to better fit the needs and preferences of individual followers. This flexibility can result in a more tailored and effective leadership approach for each team member, although this method of tailoring approaches for different followers is the recommended method anyway. 

Some of the negative (dysfunctional) aspects of VDL and bias include in-group and out-group dynamics.  Bias can lead to the formation of in-groups and out-groups within the team. Followers who are not favored by the leader may feel excluded or undervalued, leading to a negative work environment and reduced job motivation, satisfaction and ultimately performance.  This bias will then start to manifest itself in discrimination and favoritism, whether real or perceived, bias may result in leaders showing preferential treatment to certain followers, which can be perceived as unfair and lead to feelings of resentment, among others.  When this happens, communication which is a team structural dimension, starts to break down and create communication barriers.  Bias may hinder open and transparent communication within the team. Followers who feel they are not in the leader's favor may be less likely to express their opinions or share their ideas freely.  The lack of communication can lead to “gossip,” “rumor,” “finger-pointing,” “dejecting each other,” and even “sabotage” in some extreme cases.  This creates limited diversity of perspectives.  The bias and in-group/out-group dynamics can lead to a limited diversity of perspectives within the team, as the leader may predominantly rely on input from favored followers, potentially missing out on valuable insights from others.  Multiple splinter groups in large organizations make this seem like an organizational norm or even ubiquitous practice, but it is dangerous to the morale, commitment, motivation, and reliability of the organization to let it go unchecked.

Bias when considered in Vertical Dyad Linkage theory can have both positive (functional) effects, such as stronger leader-follower relationships and personalized support, as well as negative effects, including in-group dynamics and communication barriers. It is essential for leaders to be aware of their own biases and strive for fairness and inclusivity in their interactions with all team members to promote a healthy and productive work environment.

Bias and the Theory of Motivation

In the context of motivation theory, bias can have both positive and negative aspects that can influence how individuals are driven to achieve their goals and perform tasks.  Motivation theory explores the factors that initiate, guide, and sustain human behavior towards achieving desired outcomes. Here are some positive (functional) and negative (dysfunctional) aspects of bias in the theory of motivation:

One of the first positive aspects of bias in motivation theory is the self-serving bias.  The self-serving bias is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to attribute their successes to internal factors (e.g., their own abilities, efforts, etc.) while attributing failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck, circumstances out of their control, etc.). This bias can be positive as it can boost an individual's self-esteem and confidence, encouraging them to persist in pursuing their goals.  Then you can have optimism bias.  Optimism bias is the tendency to overestimate positive outcomes and underestimate negative outcomes. This bias can enhance motivation by making individuals more hopeful and optimistic about achieving their goals, leading to greater effort and perseverance.  Just consider how many people have attempted to climb Mount Everest.  

Another functional bias in the Theory of Motivation is confirmation bias. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms pre-existing beliefs. In the context of motivation, individuals may focus on information that supports their goals and aspirations, providing a sense of purpose and direction.  Another is what is known as expectancy bias.  Expectancy bias is the belief that one's efforts will lead to desired outcomes (rewards). When individuals have a positive expectancy bias, they are more motivated to invest time and effort into tasks, anticipating that their efforts will yield positive results.

Some negative (dysfunctional) bias in the context of the Theory of Motivation include attribution bias.  Attribution bias refers to the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal factors (e.g., their personality, character, abilities, etc.) and one's behavior to external factors (e.g., situational influences). This bias can negatively affect team dynamics and collaboration, leading to misunderstandings and conflicts.  Along with the fundamental attribution error, another bias is the stereotype threat. Stereotype threat is a phenomenon where individuals feel anxious or stressed about potentially confirming negative stereotypes about their own social group. This bias can undermine motivation and performance, especially in situations where individuals feel their success or failure may reflect on their social identity (this is also part of socialization theory). 

Another dysfunctional bias in Motivation Theory is what is known as the false consensus effect.  The false consensus effect is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share one's own beliefs and attitudes. This bias can lead to unrealistic expectations and disappointment if individuals believe that their goals or values are more widely accepted than they are.  Then there is the self-fulfilling prophecy.  A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when an individual's expectations about a situation lead to behaviors that make those expectations come true. Negative biases or low expectations can lead to reduced motivation and performance, thereby fulfilling the initially negative expectations. 

Leaders need to be aware of the various biases in Motivation Theory to promote a healthy and effective motivation process. By recognizing and addressing negative biases and harnessing positive biases, individuals and organizations can create an environment that fosters motivation and enhances performance.

Putting It All Together:

Bias by itself is neither good, nor bad, functional, or dysfunctional.  If we recognize that bias is a preference and it is natural to apply the concept of homophily in our societies and understand that it is a naturally occurring social phenomenon, then it doesn’t seem so evil a social concept.  Also, if we recognize and understand the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with others who are like themselves in certain characteristics or attributes, then bias is neither good, nor bad, functional, or dysfunctional.  When viewed through the lens of other scientific, behavior-based, leadership theories and concepts, bias can become both functional and/or dysfunctional, like many of the other theories.  The key for the leader is to not only recognize the bias, but to determine if/how it is connected to other leadership theories within the situational environment inside the leadership process and to make the adjustments necessary to improve motivation, satisfaction, and performance to achieve the organizational goals.   

About the Author: Dr. Chris Fuzie is the owner of CMF Leadership Consulting and is currently is the Business/HR Manager for a District Attorney’s office in California. Chris is a Leaderologist II and Vice President of the National Leaderology Association (NLA) who holds a Doctor of Education (Ed. D), M.A. and B.A. in Organizational Leadership, and has graduate certificates in Human Resources and Criminal Justice Education. Chris is a developer, trainer, consultant for leadership of public, private, profit, and non-profit organizations since 2010. Chris is a graduate of the FBI National Academy and a former National Instructor for the International Association of Chiefs of Police and California P.O.S.T. Courses. Chris is the author of "Because Why... Understanding Behavior in Exigencies." and of "S.C.O.R.E. Performance Counseling: Save the Relationship, Change the Behavior." Chris is honorably retired from the Modesto Police Department after 28 years of public service leading such teams as the Homicide Team, the Hostage Negotiations Team, the Street-Level Drug Team and the School Police Officer Team.